She commanded armies and built warships. She was ruthless with rivals and quick to eliminate traitors. She spoke at least nine languages, received diplomats and negotiated with kings. But the last woman to rule Egypt is a legend today because of her powers of seduction. Her story has provided material for countless novels and films, and the myth of Cleopatra lives on, her appearance fused with that of Elizabeth Taylor in the epic 1963 film. The real Cleopatra may well not have been so graceful; her attraction was more a matter of intelligence and strength of will. And she succeeded in winning over the most powerful Romans of her day.

In an era dominated by men, Queen Elizabeth I was the only woman. She ruled England for 45 years, laying the foundation for the British Empire, and when she died in 1603 she gave her name to an entire epoch: the Elizabethan Age.
Nobody would have thought this possible when she was younger – least of all herself. Elizabeth was born in a period when the idea of a woman on the throne was considered a disaster, and she was regarded as a "bastard whore" by her opponents. Henry VIII had divorced his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, and married Anne Boleyn, a lady from the court; this illicit divorce caused the rift with the Catholic Church. When Anne Boleyn gave birth to Princess Elizabeth on 7 September 1533, the king was hugely disappointed: all his efforts had been designed to ensure a male heir. He didn't even attend the christening.